Chapter 6 Secondary Activities

Manufacturing

Economic activities are broadly classified based on how they interact with resources and generate income. These include primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary activities.

Secondary activities are those that take raw materials obtained from primary activities and transform them into more valuable finished products. They add value to natural resources through processes like manufacturing, processing, and construction.

For example, raw cotton has limited use, but when manufactured into yarn and then fabric, its value increases significantly, allowing it to be used for clothing. Similarly, raw iron ore from a mine is not directly usable, but when processed into steel, it becomes a highly valuable material used in countless machines and tools.

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Manufacturing specifically involves the production of goods. This can range from creating items by hand (handicrafts) to complex assembly processes for advanced products like computers or space vehicles.

Common characteristics found in modern manufacturing processes include:

• Application of power (using energy sources to drive machinery).
• Mass production of large quantities of identical products.
• Utilisation of specialised labour, where workers perform specific, repetitive tasks.
• Production taking place in factory settings designed for efficiency.
• Creation of standardised commodities that meet specific quality and design criteria.

While modern manufacturing is highly mechanized and uses advanced power, manufacturing can also still be carried out using more primitive methods, particularly in some developing countries.

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The term 'manufacturing' literally meant 'to make by hand' historically, but it now encompasses making goods using machines. It's essentially a process that converts raw materials into finished products with higher value for sale.

An 'industry' is often used synonymously with manufacturing and refers to a geographically located unit with a management system, accounting, and records (e.g., 'steel industry', 'chemical industry'). However, the term 'industry' can also apply to non-manufacturing sectors like the 'entertainment industry' or 'tourism industry'. To be precise about physical production, the term 'manufacturing industry' is often used.

Characteristics Of Modern Large Scale Manufacturing

Modern large-scale manufacturing is defined by several key features:

• Specialisation of Skills / Methods of Production: Moving beyond 'craft' methods (producing few custom pieces at high cost), modern manufacturing employs mass production. This involves producing vast quantities of identical parts, with each worker specializing in and repeatedly performing a single task on an assembly line.
• Mechanisation: The extensive use of machines ('gadgets') to perform tasks that were previously done manually. An advanced form is Automation, where manufacturing processes operate largely without direct human thinking or intervention, using computer control systems and machines designed to perform complex operations autonomously.
• Technological Innovation: Continuous improvement is driven by intensive research and development (R&D). This focuses on enhancing quality control, minimizing waste and inefficiency in production, and developing methods to combat environmental pollution.
• Organisational Structure and Stratification: Modern manufacturing involves:
  • Complex machine technology.
  • Extreme specialization and division of labour to increase output with less effort and cost.
  • Vast amounts of capital investment.
  • Large organizational structures.
  • Executive bureaucracy for management and coordination.
• Uneven Geographic Distribution: Modern manufacturing is highly concentrated in specific locations globally, covering less than 10% of the world's land area. These concentrated areas in certain nations often correlate with economic and political power. Manufacturing sites are more geographically localized and intensive than agricultural areas; a small industrial area can employ thousands, whereas a much larger agricultural area employs far fewer people.

Why Do Large-Scale Industries Choose Different Locations?

Industries aim to maximize profits, which means minimizing production costs. The location of an industry is strategically chosen to achieve the lowest possible overall costs.

Key factors influencing industrial locations include:

• Access to Market: A market consists of people who both desire the product (demand) and can afford to buy it (purchasing power). Proximity to a large market is crucial. Developed regions (Europe, North America, Japan, Australia) have high purchasing power, forming large markets. Densely populated regions in South and Southeast Asia also offer substantial markets. Some industries, like aircraft or arms manufacturing, serve a global market.
• Access to Raw Material: Raw materials should ideally be cheap and easy to transport. Industries using bulky, heavy, or weight-losing raw materials (like ores for steel, sugarcane for sugar, stone for cement) are often located close to the source to minimize transport costs. Industries processing perishable materials (like agro-processing or dairy) also need to be near the source to prevent spoilage.
• Access to Labour Supply: While increasing mechanization has reduced dependency on large pools of manual labour, some manufacturing still requires skilled workers. The availability and cost of labour remain significant factors in location decisions, though less critical than before in many highly automated industries.
• Access to Sources of Energy: Industries requiring significant power are often located close to energy sources (e.g., aluminium industry near hydroelectric power). Historically, coal fields were key industrial locations; today, access to electricity and petroleum are also vital.
• Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities: Efficient and fast transport is essential for bringing raw materials to the factory and distributing finished goods to markets. Low transport costs are a major determinant. Regions with highly developed transport networks (like Western Europe and eastern North America) have historically attracted industrial concentration. Modern industry is deeply integrated with transportation, leading to regional specialization. Reliable communication is also needed for managing operations and exchanging information.
• Government Policy: Governments often implement regional development policies to promote balanced economic growth. This can involve providing incentives or establishing infrastructure to encourage industries to locate in specific areas, sometimes away from traditional industrial hubs.
• Access to Agglomeration Economies / Links between Industries: Industries often benefit from clustering together. Being near a major ('leader') industry or a group of related industries creates 'agglomeration economies' – savings and efficiencies derived from shared infrastructure, services, specialized labour pools, and business linkages (e.g., suppliers, support services).

These factors typically interact and are considered together when deciding the optimal location for an industrial unit.

Foot Loose Industries

Footloose industries are a category of manufacturing industries that are not strongly tied to any specific location by factors like proximity to raw materials (whether bulky, weight-losing, or otherwise) or major power sources.

Characteristics of footloose industries:

• They can be located in a wide variety of places.
• They primarily rely on easily transportable component parts, which can be sourced from anywhere.
• Production volume is typically small.
• They generally employ a relatively small workforce.
• They are often non-polluting.

A crucial factor influencing their location is good accessibility, often via road networks.

Classification Of Manufacturing Industries

Manufacturing industries can be classified based on several criteria:

• Size
• Inputs / Raw Materials used
• Output / Products produced
• Ownership

Industries Based On Size

The size of an industry is determined by the amount of capital invested, the number of workers employed, and the total volume of goods produced.

Based on size, industries are classified into:

• Household or Cottage Industries
• Small-Scale Industries
• Large-Scale Industries

Household Industries Or Cottage Manufacturing

This represents the smallest manufacturing unit, typically operated within the home of the artisan.

Features:

• Artisans use local raw materials and simple, often locally-made tools.
• Production occurs in the home with the help of family members or part-time workers.
• Goods are usually produced for self-consumption, sale in local village markets, or for barter.
• Capital investment and transportation requirements are minimal, reflecting low commercial significance.

Examples of products include foodstuffs, fabrics, mats, containers, basic tools, furniture, shoes, pottery, bricks, jewellery, and crafts made from local materials like wood or bamboo.

Small Scale Manufacturing

Small-scale manufacturing is distinct from household industry as production often takes place in a small workshop or facility outside the home.

Features:

• Uses local raw materials.
• Employs simple power-driven machines.
• Relies on semi-skilled labour.

This sector is important in providing employment and boosting local purchasing power. Countries with large populations like India, China, Indonesia, and Brazil have promoted labour-intensive small-scale manufacturing for employment generation.

Large Scale Manufacturing

Large-scale manufacturing is characterized by:

• Serving a large market.
• Utilizing various types of raw materials.
• Requiring enormous amounts of energy.
• Employing a large workforce of specialized workers.
• Using advanced technology and assembly-line mass production.
• Involving substantial capital investment.

This form of manufacturing significantly developed over the last two centuries, primarily in the UK, northeastern USA, and Europe, and has since spread globally.

Based on their systems, major large-scale industrial regions can be broadly categorized into:

• Traditional Large-Scale Industrial Regions: Often concentrated in developed countries, based on heavy industry (like metal smelting, heavy engineering) typically near raw material sources like coal fields.
• High-Technology Large Scale Industrial Regions: More recent development, often diffused to developing countries, characterized by advanced technology and R&D.

Industries Based On Inputs/Raw Materials

Industries are classified according to the primary raw materials they use:

• Agro-based
• Mineral-based
• Chemical-based
• Forest-based
• Animal-based

Agro Based Industries

These industries process raw materials derived from agriculture (fields and farms) into finished products for urban and rural markets.

Major types include:

• Food Processing: Covering canning, cream production, fruit processing, confectionery, and preserving techniques like drying, fermenting, and pickling. While some traditional methods existed, modern food processing developed significantly after the Industrial Revolution.
• Other examples: Sugar, pickles, fruit juices, beverages (tea, coffee, cocoa), spices, oils, fats, textiles (cotton, jute, silk), and rubber.

Agri-business is a term for large-scale commercial farming operated on an industrial scale, often funded by businesses outside agriculture. These operations are typically highly mechanized, large in size, rely on chemicals, and can be described as 'agro-factories'.

Mineral Based Industries

These industries use minerals as their primary raw material.

They can be further divided based on the type of mineral:

• Industries using ferrous metallic minerals (containing iron), such as the iron and steel industry.
• Industries using non-ferrous metallic minerals (not containing iron), like aluminium, copper, or jewellery industries.
• Industries using non-metallic minerals, such as cement or pottery industries.

Chemical Based Industries

These industries utilize naturally occurring chemical minerals or raw materials derived from them or other sources like wood and coal.

Examples:

• Petrochemical industry (uses mineral oil/petroleum).
• Industries using salts, sulphur, and potash.
• Industries producing synthetic fibre, plastics, etc. (often derived from wood or coal).

Forest Based Raw Material Using Industries

These industries rely on products sourced from forests as their raw materials.

Examples:

• Timber for the furniture industry.
• Wood, bamboo, and grass for the paper industry.
• Lac for lac industries.

Animal Based Industries

These industries use animal products as raw materials.

Examples:

• Leather for the leather industry (from animal hides).
• Wool for the woollen textile industry (from sheep and other animals).
• Ivory (historically from elephant tusks, now often restricted due to conservation concerns).

Industries Based On Output/Product

Industries can be classified based on whether their products are final goods for consumers or raw materials for other industries.

• Basic Industries (or Key Industries): These produce goods that are used as raw materials or inputs by other industries. They form the foundation for other manufacturing activities.

  Example: The Iron and Steel Industry produces steel, which is then used to make machinery, tools, and structures needed by many other industries (like the textile industry to make machines for clothes).

• Consumer Goods Industries (or Non-basic Industries): These produce goods that are directly purchased and consumed by individuals.

  Examples: Industries making bread, biscuits, tea, coffee, soaps, toiletries, paper for writing, televisions, automobiles sold to individuals, etc.

Industries Based On Ownership

Industries are classified according to who owns and manages them:

• Public Sector Industries: These are owned and managed by the government. Countries with socialist economic systems have a large number of state-owned industries. In mixed economies, both public and private sectors coexist. In India, many Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs) were established.
• Private Sector Industries: These are owned and managed by individual investors or private companies. Capitalist economies typically have a dominance of privately owned industries.
• Joint Sector Industries: These are managed jointly. This can involve partnerships between joint stock companies, or collaboration between the private sector and the government (public sector).

Traditional Large-Scale Industrial Regions

Traditional large-scale industrial regions were typically built around heavy industries, often located near abundant raw material sources like coal fields. These industries included metal smelting, heavy engineering, chemical manufacturing, and textile production. Such areas are sometimes referred to as smokestack industries due to the visual impact of their operations.

Key characteristics of traditional industrial regions include:

• A high proportion of the workforce employed in manufacturing.
• High population density with often lower-quality housing and services.
• An unappealing environment due to pollution, waste, etc.
• Current challenges like unemployment, out-migration, and abandoned industrial sites ('derelict land') resulting from the decline and closure of factories, often due to reduced global demand or shifts in production to other areas.

The Ruhr Coal-Field, Germany

The Ruhr region in Germany is a prime example of a traditional large-scale industrial region in Europe. Historically, its economy was based heavily on coal and iron and steel production.

As the demand for coal decreased over time, the industrial base of the Ruhr began to contract.

Even after the local iron ore deposits were depleted, the steel industry persisted by importing ore, which was easily transported via waterways.

The Ruhr region historically accounted for a significant portion (80%) of Germany's total steel output.

Changes in the industrial landscape have led to urban decay in some parts of the region, along with ongoing issues of industrial waste and pollution.

The future economic success of the Ruhr is now less reliant on its traditional coal and steel industries. It is shifting towards new industries, exemplified by major facilities like a large Opel car assembly plant, new chemical factories, and the development of universities and out-of-town shopping centres, creating a 'New Ruhr' landscape.

Iron And Steel Industry

The iron and steel industry is considered a basic industry because its products (iron and steel) are essential raw materials for a vast range of other manufacturing industries that produce goods for further production (like machinery and tools) or for consumers.

It is also categorized as a heavy industry due to its reliance on large volumes of bulky raw materials and the heavy nature of its final products.

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The production process involves extracting iron from iron ore by smelting it in a blast furnace. This requires high temperatures and the addition of carbon (usually in the form of coke) and limestone.

The molten iron produced is cooled and cast into blocks called pig iron. Pig iron is then processed further into steel by adding strengthening elements, such as manganese.

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Traditionally, large integrated steel plants were located close to the sources of essential raw materials: iron ore, coal, manganese, and limestone, or at coastal locations where these materials could be easily imported via ships.

In contrast, mini steel mills are smaller, less expensive to build and operate, and their location is more influenced by proximity to markets. Their primary raw material is scrap metal, which is widely available near urban centres, allowing them to be located closer to consumption areas.

While large integrated plants historically dominated steel production, mini-mills, which often focus on just the steel-making step (not full integration from ore to finished product), are becoming increasingly important.

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Distribution: The iron and steel industry is highly complex and capital-intensive, with significant concentrations in developed countries in North America, Europe, and Asia.

• U.S.A.: Historically strong in the North Appalachian region (Pittsburgh, sometimes called the "rust bowl" now due to decline), Great Lake region (Chicago-Gary, Erie, Cleveland, Lorain, Buffalo, Duluth), and the Atlantic Coast (Sparrows Point, Morisville). Production has also expanded into southern states like Alabama.
• Europe: Leading producers include the U.K. (Scun Thorpe, Port Talbot, Birmingham, Sheffield), Germany (Duisburg, Dortmund, Dusseldorf, Essen), France (Le Creusot, St. Ettienne), Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Russia (Moscow, St. Petersburgh, Lipetsk, Tula). Important centres also exist in Ukraine (Krivoi Rog, Donetsk).
• Asia: Significant centres are found in Japan (Nagasaki, Tokyo-Yokohama), China (Shanghai, Tientsin, Wuhan), and India (Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem, Visakhapatnam, Bhadravati).

Cotton Textile Industry

The cotton textile industry is involved in processing cotton into fabric. It comprises three main sub-sectors, differing in technology and scale:

• Handloom sector: This is highly labour-intensive, uses simple tools, requires minimal capital, and employs semi-skilled workers. It covers spinning yarn, weaving fabric, and finishing. This sector is significant in areas like India, where Khadi (hand-spun, hand-woven cloth) has cultural and historical importance related to independence movements.
• Powerloom sector: Introduces machines operated by power, making it less labour-intensive than handloom and increasing production volume.
• Mill sector: This is highly capital-intensive, utilizes advanced machinery, and produces large volumes of fine quality cloth in bulk.

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The industry requires good quality raw cotton. Major raw cotton producing countries include India, China, U.S.A., Pakistan, Uzbekistan, and Egypt, accounting for over half of global production.

Countries like the U.K., northwestern European nations, and Japan also have significant cotton textile industries, often relying on imported yarn.

Europe is a major importer of cotton, accounting for nearly half of the world's total imports.

The cotton textile industry faces strong competition from synthetic fibres, which have led to a decline in production in many countries.

Driven by technological advancements and changes in costs, the industry has shown a tendency to shift location. For instance, Germany's cotton textile industry grew after WWII but declined after the 1970s, relocating to developing countries where labour costs are lower.

Concept Of High Technology Industry

High technology, or 'high-tech', represents the cutting edge of modern manufacturing activities. It is fundamentally driven by intensive research and development (R&D) efforts.

The primary outcome of high-tech industry is the manufacture of products characterized by advanced scientific and engineering knowledge.

Key features of high-tech industries:

• A large proportion of the workforce consists of highly skilled professionals, often referred to as white-collar workers. These specialists (like researchers, engineers, designers) significantly outnumber the production workers (blue-collar workers).
• Extensive use of advanced automation, such as robotics on assembly lines.
• Integration of computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing.
• Electronic controls for complex processes like smelting and refining.
• Continuous innovation and development of new materials, chemicals, and pharmaceutical products.

The physical appearance of high-tech facilities is distinct from traditional factories. They are often characterized by neatly spaced, low-rise, modern buildings housing offices, laboratories, and production areas, rather than large, imposing assembly structures or extensive storage facilities.

Planned business parks dedicated to high-tech start-ups have become common strategies for regional and local economic development.

Regions where high-tech industries are highly concentrated, self-sufficient, and specialized are called technopolies. Famous examples include Silicon Valley near San Francisco and Silicon Forest near Seattle in the U.S.A.

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Manufacturing activities are a vital contributor to the global economy. Major manufacturing industries worldwide include iron and steel, textiles, automobiles, petrochemicals, and electronics.

Exercises

This section includes exercises covering various question types to help students review and apply the concepts discussed in the chapter on secondary activities.

Choose The Right Answer From The Four Alternatives Given Below

Multiple-choice questions testing basic understanding of key facts and definitions.

Write A Short Note On The Following In About 30 Words

Short answer questions requiring brief explanations of specific terms or concepts.

Answer The Following In Not More Than 150 Words

More detailed questions requiring descriptive answers and analysis, including comparisons and explanations of geographical patterns.

Project/Activity

Suggestions for activities involving observation, research, and investigation related to manufacturing and its impact.